Scientists are always in search of reality, how did it all began? So far, they have been able to explain the evolution and the birth of our universe as a result of big bang theory. They eventually want to know more. Descrbing the universe from this point haven't satisfied the scientists and they are starting to look even backwards. What was it that caused the big bang? What was there beyong the bigbang and the spacetime? To answer this mystery, scientists are in search of a theory- THeory of Everything! The concept of parallel universes yielded the M-theory (membrane theory / mad-theory / made-up theory / meaningful theory / meaningless theory - there are many opinions about this theory among the physicists of today). The parallel universe and the M-theory is explained in the documentary below. The theory further discusses about the 11-dimensions.
Fantasy has long borrowed the idea of "another world" from myth, legend and religion. Heaven, Hell, Olympus, Valhalla are all "alternative universes" different from the familiar material realm. Modern fantasy often presents the concept as a series of planes of existence where the laws of nature differ, allowing magical phenomena of some sort on some planes. This concept was also found in ancient Hindu mythology, in texts such as the Puranas, which expressed an infinite number of universes, each with its own gods. While technically incorrect, and looked down upon by hard science-fiction fans and authors, the idea of another "dimension" has become synonymous with the term "parallel universe". The usage is particularly common in movies, television and comic books and much less so in modern prose science fiction. Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parallel_universe_(fiction)"Our universe (that we feel to exist) is a collection of selected events from these multiverses based upon the probabilties and the actions/decisions that we take/make." [my understanding]
And hereby, I present the summary of my understanding of the M-theory:
- Every matter in this universe is composed of vibrating strings which are about 10^(35) of a mm.
- Our universe is a bubble floating in a membrane.
- There are many such bubbles floating around.
Australian transport investigators have announced they have identified a "critical safety issue" with engines fitted to the world's largest passenger airliner. Some Rolls-Royce Trent 900 engines, which power some Airbus A380 "superjumbos", may be prone to "fatigue cracking", which could lead to oil leakage and a fire.
There was an age when communication and transportation was limited which kept us to persue a limited ammount of space on earth. With each slight progress in communication and transportation, our community suddenly elaborated. We started from streeet to street and then town to town and eventually from country to country. With this rapid development in science and technology, we might eventually talk about planet to planet. For example, in the past people used to represent themself saying "I am from blah blah town". Thereafer "I am from that province" and now we talk about I am from this country. It might be such that in the future that we represent our planet and we introduce ourself in other planets/galaxies by saying "I am from earth".
One of the recent progress in technology is the flying bird. It is of no amaze that humans can fly today in the sky like birds with the development in aeronautics. But this recent development is the flying car which is hybrid and is infact a car that can fly in sky.
The concept of flying cars is not a new one. It was preliminarily designed before but the practical one which could be used in real life was not achieved before. Terrafugia company in Oskkosh, USA have designed the rodable aircraft which can roll on the road as well lift on the air. The design is both a rear-wheel drive road vehicle and a light sport aircraft that can cruise at 170 kph (105 mph). Although this technology is still limited to certain class of people, it can be common to ordinary people once the commercialization takes on and production becomes efficient. Besides that, the air certification plays a role in bringing these cars to public as well.
This newly designed flying car may pave the way for future personal transportation. This development will certainly defy the constraints in living. No landscapes can block the cars, no roads need to be paved, no any terrains will resist to move. The range for transportation will increase and the life on earth will be different once these flying cars will start to be on garages of personals.
Let us see what progress and success will this technology achieve in the future.
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"We are on the verge of the perpetual flight," he said.It is certain that there won’t be any life on earth once the sun gets burnt out and it starts expanding to form a red giant which will end the earth and solar system. This is estimated to happen in five billion years from now on. But that time is very far from us, so we don’t need to panic right now. Besides, the search for another shelter planet is going on with the rapid development in science and technology. The other thing that we should fear is about the changing climate and unpredictable weathers that we have been facing currently. It has certainly been a time to be serious about the preservation of earth and its atmosphere to keep our human kind alive.
People might have misunderstood the definition of climate change when they see some extreme winters and get confused that there is no such thing like global warming. It is well to be taken into account that the extreme winters and extreme summers are a part of climate change.
Now let us see how the water has escaped into the atmosphere which will be interesting for us in Earth. As ultraviolet radiation from the Sun streams into Venus' atmosphere, it breaks up the water molecules into atoms: two hydrogens and one oxygen atom. Such continuous reaction transformed water to oxygen and hydrogen. These gases could easily escape to the atmosphere. This shows us that ultraviolet rays from the sun are the main reason for the loss of water on Venus. As a reason of ozone depletion, the water on the earth could face the same attack. The current surface of Venus is like a hot oven. It could be such that the surface was similar to ours in the past over there. I hope and wish that our earth will never be an hot oven. Let us preserve our earth and let preserve ourselves.
South Korea has lost contact with its Naro-1 rocket, just 137 seconds after take-off. Officials believe the rocket exploded.
Korea Aerospace Research Institute (KARI) and Khrunichev State Research and Production Space Center had hoped to use a Naro-1, South Korea's first carrier rocket, to launch a STSAT-2B satellite.
South Korea had postponed the launch on Wednesday due to problems with the rocket's fire extinguisher system. Science Ministry spokesman Pyun Kyung-bum said, "We expect that it will be difficult to launch today".
The rocket lifted off from Goheung's Naro Space Centre at 1701 (0801 GMT) today. The rocket apparently exploded 137 seconds after launch, when a flash was seen from an on-board camera and communication was lost. The loss of communication occurred when the rocket had achieved an altitude of around 70 kilometers (43 mi). Television cameras captured a white speck, presumably part of the rocket, falling into the sea.
Analysts say the failure is a setback for South Korea. If it had been successful, it would have been the first Naro-1 launch to reach orbit. The launch cost South Korea an estimated US$400 million, and if successful, would have launched a satellite called the STSAT-2B into orbit. The satellite was designed to examine climate change and its effects.
The incident is seen as a major setback for South Korea's space program, which had been aiming to become the 10th country to achieve the capability to launch satellites, and the fourth Asian country, after China, Japan, and India. A successful launch would have helped South Korea to become a player in commercial space launches, an industry valued at around US$250 billion. Since 1992, South Korea has launched 11 satellites from overseas sites with foreign-made rockets.
Lead researcher Michelle Simmons said the technology has major implications for code-breaking, financial transactions and weather forecasting, which involve testing enormous numbers of possible scenarios.
Fishtail Air has with the help of Air Zermatt, a Swiss helicopter company, introduced an advance "Alpine Rescue System" in the Himalayan region of Nepal.
Air Zermatt has also introduced ambulance facilities in the rescue helicopter to make rescue operations effective.
It had organized a week-long training programme on how to conduct high-altitude rescue operations for Fishtail Air pilots on March this year, said Suman Pandey, chief executive officer of Fishtail Air.
The pilot and rescue specialist of Fishtail Air will be leaving for Switzerland for additional training in Alpine in the near future, he added. Fishtail Air also believes that after the additional training by the pilot and rescue specialist, it will have the best rescue team in the whole of Asia.
It has also plans to expand its service to the neighboring counties like India, Bhutan and Tibet.
Are eco-friendly airplanes possible?
The ecology is finally getting more attention, and eco-friendly products are becoming increasingly popular. Hybrid cars are one of the best examples how eco-friendly vehicles are becoming more and more popular as their sales have experienced significant growth in the last few years.
And now it looks like air traffic might also have its green representative in form of eco-friendly plane after MIT-led team designed an eco-friendly airplane that is estimated to use 70 percent less fuel than current planes while also reducing noise and emission of harmful nitrogen oxides.
Current estimates say that air traffic will double by 2035 so it is of vital importance to develop eco-friendly planes that would be far more efficient than current planes in order to tackle climate change problem.
THE MIT scientists have designed two series of eco-friendly planes: the 180-passenger D "double bubble" series to replace the Boeing 737 class aircraft, currently used for domestic flights, and the 350 passenger H "hybrid wing body" series to replace the 777 class aircraft now used for international flights.
D series was constructed by reconfiguring the tube-and-wing structure. Instead of using a single fuselage cylinder, scientists used two partial cylinders placed side by side to create a wider structure whose cross-section resembles two soap bubbles joined together. They also moved the engines from the usual wing-mounted locations to the rear of the fuselage. Unlike the engines on most transport aircraft that take in the high-speed, undisturbed air flow, the D-series engines take in slower moving air that is present in the wake of the fuselage. This techniques is knows as the Boundary Layer Ingestion (BLI), and it allows the engines to use less fuel for the same amount of thrust, although the design has several practical drawbacks, such as creating more engine stress.
H series utilizes much of the same technology as the D series, including BLI, a larger design is needed for this plane to carry more passengers over longer distances. The MIT team designed a triangular-shaped hybrid wing body aircraft that blends a wider fuselage with the wings for improved aerodyamics. The large center body creates a forward lift that eliminates the need for a tail to balance the aircraft.
Eco-friendly air traffic certainly sounds very good, especially after construction of eco-friendly airplanes look possible. Let us hope that such aircraft will be flying sooner in our sky and thus protecting our environment.
Conceptual Design of eco-friendly aircraft as designed by MIT-Cambridge research team
1. The Earth spins at 1,000 mph (1,610 kph) but it travels through space at an incredible 67,000 mph (107,826 kph).
2. Every year, over one million earthquakes shake the Earth.
3. The Earth is 4.56 billion years old…the same age as the Moon and the Sun.
4. In 5 billion years the Sun will run out of fuel and turn into a Red Giant.
5. It would take over an hour for a heavy object to sink 6.7 miles (10.8 kilometres) down to the deepest part of the ocean.
6. Around a million, billion neutrinos from the Sun will pass through your body while you read this sentence.
7. Every hour the Universe expands by a billion miles in all directions.
8. Venus is the hottest planet in our solar system with surface temperature above 450 C.
9. If we are to believe scientists there are approximately 50,000,000,000 galaxies "out there". there might be even more than that however
10. Our moon is extremely dry, it is for instance one million times drier than a earth desert.
11. The highest recorded temperature on Earth was measured in Libya in 1922, and it was 58°C.
12. The lowest recorded temperature on our planet was -89.6°C. This was measured in Antarctica in 1983.
13. Not all animals on our planet have brains, for instance starfish do not have brains.
14. Our brain isn't much different than the rest of our body in terms of water since 80 % of our brain is water.
15. Our brain for proper functioning needs about quarter of total oxygen used by our body.
16. Ants are so hardworking that they even do not sleep.
17. Our fingernails are growing much faster than our toenails, about 4 times faster.
18. Talking about the hot stuff - The highest temperature produced in a laboratory was 920,000,000 F (511,000,000 C) at the Tokamak Fusion Test Reactor in Princeton, NJ, USA.
19. Hurricanes cause havoc which is really no surprise since a typical hurricane produces the energy equivalent to 8,000 one megaton bombs.
20. In case you have ever wondered why giraffes are such a quiet animals it is because they have no vocal chords to make any noise.
21. In Mercury, a day is longer than a year. Note that the rotation in its axis makes a day while the revolution around the sun makes a year.
22. Sun loses 360 million tonnes of material each day as its fuel burns.
23. Astronauts can become upto 2 inches taller returning from space.This happens because the cartilage disks in the spine expand in the absence of gravity.
24. Methane is extremely potent greenhouse gas and cows are among the largest methane emitters with each domestic cow emitting about 105 pounds of methane a year.
25. The fastest spacecraft till the date can cruise at 40,000 mph (67,374 kph).
26. Fetuses react to rock music by responsing with a continous kick inside mother's belly.
27. Average male brain is larger than average female brain (1,4 kg to 1,25 kg).
28. Polar bears would make perfect thieves since they cannot be detected by infrared cameras because of their transparent fur.
29. Average person breathes about 10 million times a year.
30. It snows in the upper atmosphere of Mars but vaporizes before reaching the ground.
31. There was a time when Mars had large amounts of surface water. Proof of this facts have been fund on certain valleys and canyons.
32. Saturn's rings are about 500,000 miles in circumference but only about a foot thick.
33. December 21st 1968, was the first time that humans actually left the Earth, when Apollo 8 became the first manned space vehicle to leave Earth orbit and to orbit the Moon.
34. A satellite launched by Britain was called Black Arrow.
35. Our moon is in fact moving away from Earth at a rate of about 2.5 cm per year. There are different statistics for the moon's rate of moving way from the Earth, some claim the rate of moon's moving away from the Earth is up to 34 cm per year but according to the most credible sources it moves 2.5 cm away from Earth each year.
36. Buzz Aldrin's(second man on the moon) mother's maiden name was "Moon".
37. Did you know that astronauts cannot burp in space?
38. It is said that just 20 seconds worth of fuel remained when Apollo 11's lunar module landed on the moon.
39. A comet's tail always points from the sun.
40. Every day, Earth accumulate 10 to 100 tons of material.
41. The largest found meteorite was found in Hoba, Namibia. It weighed 60 tons.
42. Did you know that the heart of an astronaut actually gets smaller when in outer space?
43. The earth is .02 degrees hotter during a full moon.
44. Some large asteroids even have their own moon.
45. On average, Saturn is 886 million miles away from the Sun.
46. Saturn's density is less than water on average, although this fact is a bit misleading. As one looks deeper into the planets gas surface, density rises well above water.
47. Jupiter has 60 known moons, but some of them are quite small and look fainter.
48. A 100 pound object on Earth would weight 116 pounds on Saturn.
49. Mars is red because it is rusty. There is a lot of iron in the soil, and the air on Mars has made it turn red-just like rusty iron on Earth.
50. It takes about 29.46 Earth years for Saturn to complete its orbit around the sun.
51. Mars complete its orbit around the Sun in 687 days.
52. The atmosphere of Saturn comprises mostly of Hydrogen and Helium.
53. At its brightest, Mars outshines every other planet apart from Venus.
54. Only moon of Saturn to have an atmosphere out of its thirty satellites is Titan.
55. Jupiter has a mass 318 times greater than the Earth's and a diameter that is 11 times larger.
American biologist Craig Venter has announced that he has created the first ever "artificial life form" on Earth at the J. Craig Venter Institute, a U.S. laboratory and research center.
The breakthrough is the culmination of fifteen years of research and builds upon earlier work, research which saw the creation of a synthetic bacterial genome and the transplant of a genome from one species of bacteria into a second. "Synthia", a nickname derived from synthetic lifeform, combines these two techniques to create a "new lifeform".
A genome was created using synthetic chromosomes made from bottles of chemicals, the chromosomes sequenced to create a genome using as a template an existing bacterium. A bacterium from different species then had its own genome removed and the synthetic one transplanted in its place. Venter's achievement is that the new genome switched on and the new cell was able to replicate. A process likened to the booting of a computer with a new operating system.
Venter's achievement has been dismissed by some as falling short of a true technological breakthrough, claiming that rather than creating a new genome, that he has merely recreated the genome of an existing bacterium: "a technical tour de force" but not breakthrough science, according to Caltech geneticist David Baltimore.
Amongst the possibilities of artificial bacteria talked about are bacteria tailored to solve climate change by taking CO2 out of the atmosphere and to develop new vaccines. More complex organisms could include algae which would both be a source of biofuels and a CO2 remover. This is not, however, the instant solution to the Earth's major problems. Although enough is now known to duplicate a genome, there is insufficient knowledge as to what the role of individual chromosomes within the genome do. Any advances in synthetic biology to design life forms would require a much greater understanding of how the creation of proteins are coded in a genome's chromosomes.
Without no doubt, everyone knows that Jupiter is the fifth member of our solar system and it is the largest planet in our solar family. Here below can you find some more interesting facts about Jupiter.
Equatorial Radius: ~71500 kms [11.21 times that of earth]
Surface Area: 6.21796×1010 km² [122 times that of earth]
Volume: 1.43128×1015 km³ [1321.3 times that of earth]
Mass: 1.8986×1027 kg [318 times that of earth ; 1/1047 solar mass]
Equatorial layer gravity: 24.8 m/s² [2.5 times that of earth]
Escape velocity: 59.5 km/s [that of earth is 11.186 km/s]
Atm. surface Pressure: 200 kPa [twice as that of earth surface ]
Atmospheric Contents: 89% Hydrogen, 10% Helium, 1% of rest including Methane, ethane ammonia, water, etc.
Some Interesting facts about Jupiter:-
- Jupiter technically has no surface as it is entirely made out of gas.
| What is a black hole ? In simple words, a black hole is a strange astronomical body which is formed when a massive star dies. As the star dies, the nuclear fusion reactions stop because the fuel for these reactions gets burned up. At the same time, the star's gravity pulls material inward and compresses the core. As the core compresses, it heats up and eventually creates a supernova explosion in which the material and radiation blasts out into space. What remains is the highly compressed and extremely massive core. According to the general theory of relativity, a black hole is a region of space from which nothing, including light, can escape. It is the result of the deformation of space-time caused by a very compact mass. In other words, a black hole is a region of space that has so much mass concentrated in it that there is no way for a nearby object to escape its gravitational pull. Black hole is something which has immense gravity and thus nothing can pass through it. |
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| Why not even light can pass through a black hole? Suppose that you are standing on the surface of the earth. You throw a rock straight up into the air. Assuming you don't throw it too hard, it will rise for a while, but eventually the acceleration due to the planet's gravity will make it start to fall down again. If you threw the rock hard enough, though, you could make it escape the planet's gravity entirely. It would keep on rising forever. The speed with which you need to throw the rock in order that it just barely escapes the planet's gravity is called the "escape velocity". As one would expect, the escape velocity depends on the mass of the planet: if the planet is extremely massive, then its gravity is very strong, and the escape velocity is high. A lighter planet would have a smaller escape velocity. The Earth's escape velocity is 11.2 km per second (about 25000 mph), while the Moon's is only 2.4 km per second (about 5300 mph). Now imagine an object with such an enormous concentration of mass in such a small radius that its escape velocity was greater than the velocity of light. Then, since nothing can go faster than light, nothing can escape the object's gravitational field. Even a beam of light would be pulled back by gravity and would be unable to escape. | |
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Even Horizon and the Singularity of a black hole In general relativity, gravity is a manifestation of the curvature of space-time. Massive objects distort space and time, so that the usual rules of geometry don't apply anymore. Near a black hole, this distortion of space is extremely severe and causes black holes to have some very strange properties. In particular, a black hole has something called an 'event horizon'. This is a spherical surface that marks the boundary of the black hole. You can pass in through the horizon, but you can't get back out. In fact, once you've crossed the horizon, you're doomed to move inexorably closer and closer to the 'singularity' at the centre of the black hole.  You can think of the horizon as the place where the escape velocity equals the velocity of light. Outside of the horizon, the escape velocity is less than the speed of light, so if you fire your rockets hard enough, you can give yourself enough energy to get away. But if you find yourself inside the horizon, then no matter how powerful your rockets are, you can't escape.The horizon has some very strange geometrical properties. Far away from the black hole, the horizon seems to be a static, unmoving spherical surface. But once you get close to the horizon, you realize that it has a very large velocity. In fact, it is moving outward at the speed of light. That explains why it is easy to cross the horizon in the inward direction, but impossible to get back out. Since the horizon is moving out at the speed of light, in order to escape back across it, you would have to travel faster than light which is impossibly practically as well as theoretically. | |
Gravity is a well-known term and everyone in general knows that it is a pulling force. It is such a force which keeps everything in contact and everything thus constrained to something. Gravity of earth keeps the moon where it is supposed to be and gravity keeps you where you are now. If you weren’t under gravity of earth, you would be floating in space. This understanding of gravity is not really limited to the force of attraction between two masses or let’s says a pulling force. It is something more mysterious.
Newton’s Gravity:
Gravitational force = (G * m1 * m2) / (d2)
where G is the gravitational constant, m1 and m2 are the masses of the two objects, and d is the distance between the centres of gravity of the two masses.
Einstein’s Gravity:
Thus, space-time is a common quantity and as time and space are bonded together.
Space is a fibre where our universe exists. This can be seen on the picture below.
Thus, when an object is placed on this fabric space, it distorts the space-time and created a curve on the space-time. This is what we experience: gravity. Big masses create big distortion (big curvatures) while small objects create, small distortion. This is because of this face that the smaller objects are pulled towards bigger objects. Consider this with earth and moon.
Our earth being a big mass has created distortion in space-time and thus a curvature is created on the fabric of space. The moon is thus constrained to move in its orbit and hence attracted towards the earth and so are we all.
A roll motion is an up and down movement of the wings of the aircraft as shown in the picture hereby. This type of motion is used to change the direction of an aircraft during flight. For an aircraft to be rolled, ailerons’ are used at the rear section of the wings. The movement of ailerons cause the aircraft to roll.
A pitch motion is an up or down movement of the nose of the fuselage of the aircraft as shown in the picture hereby. This type of motion is used to change the altitude of an aircraft during flight. For an aircraft to be pitched, elevators are used at the rear section of the horizontal stabilizer. The movement of elevators up or down cause the aircraft to pitch.
A yaw motion is a side to side movement of the nose of an aircraft during flight. This can be seen clearly in the picture below. This type is motion is vital for changing the direction or rotating the aircraft. Rudders located at the vertical stabilizers are used for yawing motions in an aircraft.
An agreement was made previously to deliver an total operational force of 24 aircraft by the end of 2010. The future goal developed by manufacturer is that a total force of 200 bombers will be completed by 2020.
Enjoy some wonderful photographs of this majestic aircraft:
B787-Dreamliner is well-known for its high speed and the use of composite parts in its structural parts. The manufacturer claims to have a maximum speed just below Mach 1 and thus making it to be the fastest commercial aircraft. It has a maximum range of about 15000 kilometres.Several types of models are prepared like 787-3, 787-8 and 787-9. The MTOW of these models are 170,000kg, 228,000kg and 248,000kg respectively.
Along with this, the competition in aircraft manufacturing races between Airbus and Boeing. Just couple years back, Airbus launched A380 which is the largest passenger aircraft with capacity of more than 800 passengers and again Boeing now launched fastest commercial plane. Airbus goes for passenger capacity while Boeing targeted speed performance as the race for benchmark continues.
Quantum: Quantum is the minimal unit of any kind of physical entity. In simple words, it is the smallest quantity that can be thought of. For example: Photon is the smallest element of light, thus photon is the light quantum.
One another example that I can think of is the digital technology that we use intensely. We have now microprocessor, transistors and so on. But the basis of all these things starts with the concept of bits and bytes. Similarly, the physical world that we pass around is also composed of bits. These infinitesimal objects are the quanta. Everything is made up of small bits called quantum.
(Note: one quantum, two quanta)
Quantum modelling was started by famous German physicist Max Plank in 1900 which then was followed by Albert Einstein and the field is still flourishing till the date. The breakfast era of Quantum Mechanics includes names like Pauli, Heisenberg, Schrödinger, Born, Rutherford and Bohr. Eventually we are in a new era and by now we have better understanding of the quantum and the way universe works.
Believing the unbelievable: The world of quanta or the world of small is different to the world that we face. It is thus a vague part of physics to come across quantum mechanics. One has to reformat himself and the way he thinks. The system of logic works in a different way in a quantum world. The other thing one should not be confused is that the quantum world works differently compared to our world although they are the fundamentals of our world. As an example, steam is hot while ice is cold in our living world. On the other hand, the quantum world defines that they are composed of similar quanta and hence they have similar properties. Such logics make the world of quanta very different to our world.Applications of Quantum Mechanics:-
Planck's constant is very important to quantum theory and quantum mechanics in general. It states that the energy of each quantum is equal to the frequency of the radiation multiplied by the universal constant: E=f*h, where h is 6.63 * 10E-34 Js.
Quantum mechanics can be referred to as the mathematical description of physical reality of the matter, like almost any other scientific model. According to quantum mechanics the most complete description we can make of a system is its wavefunction, which is mathematically speaking just a number varying between time and place.
Quantum theory can provide accurate descriptions for phenomenons such as black body radiation and the stability of electron orbitals.
The famous quantum theory of the atom was primarily developed as an explanation for the electron's staying in its orbital, which couldn't at that time be explained by Newton's laws of motion.
Quantum particles have one very unique property, namely they can be in different states at the same time. This is referred to as the "superposition" of two conditions. Based on this for instance the 'spin' of an electron can be pointing in two different directions at once.
Many scientists believe that super-fast quantum computer are only matter of time.
Quantum computers have also unlimited potential and they are likely able to fix problems that would normally take millions of years to solve, much faster than ordinary computers. Currently the biggest problem with development of quantum computers is that scientists can only hold a limited number of atoms in place for a very short period of time.
Quantum mechanics allows a quantum computer built on these principles (still theoretical, to perform tasks that are currently thought impossible to do efficiently on a normal computer, for instance breaking with ease all currently possible encryption standards.
Quantum mechanics plays key role for understanding how individual atoms combine covalently to form chemicals or molecules, and is so well used in chemistry that is even known under the name of quantum chemistry.
Quantum mechanics has had significant impact on today's modern technology such as lasers, transistors and diodes.